Psychologist Beatrice Gelber conducted experiments in the 1950s and 1960s to test for associative learning in Paramecium aurelia. In her main trials (top row, image below), she reported that, while ...

(E) Multiple mitochondria in the ciliate Paramecium bursaria (scale bar in D and E: 1 micrometer). The proton gradients that power respiration are as universal as the genetic code itself ...

Modern methods have allowed scientists to determine that these organisms can cause fungal infections in humans, which confirms the hypothesis that ciliates can be carriers of pathogens of certain ...